Psychologists who study cognition have argued for more than three decades that cognitive processes in "normal" persons are influenced by social motivation and other interpersonal factors (Fiske, Neuberg, Beattie, & Milberg, 1987). One social factor that influences cognitive functioning is a person's reaction to being the object of stereotype and prejudice: stereotype threat. In other words, does protecting one's self from stereotype and prejudice interfere with a person's intellectual abilities? Claude Steele (1997) from Stanford University outlined the impact of stereotype threat on the cognitive abilities of two groups victimized by prejudice in America: women and African Americans. Steele argued that intellectual success in a specific setting depends on domain identification; i.e., one's self regard depends on achievement in that domain. Domain identification facilitates achievement motivation: the need to be successful in pursuits related to that domain. According to Steele, negative stereotypes may undermine a person's identification with a specific domain and lessen the resulting achievement motivation. Steele (1997) coined the term "stereotype threat" to describe this phenomenon; it is the social-psychological threat that occurs when members of a stereotyped outgroup (e.g., African Americans, women, persons with schizophrenia) find themselves in a situation specific to a domain for which a negative stereotype applies. For example, a negative stereotype about African Americans suggests they are intellectually inferior and not likely to do well scholastically (c. f., Hernstein & Murray, 1984). African Americans experiencing stereotype threat may feel anxious when faced with an achievement exam in school. A negative stereotype about women related to school suggests that they have inferior mathematic and analytical abilities (Eccles, et al.,1983). Women experiencing stereotype threat are likely to be concerned about taking an algebra test.

The experiences of stereotypes and the social cognitive deficits of severe mental illness seem to differ markedly from the experiences of women and African Americans. In order to apply a model of stereotype threat to the social cognitive deficits experienced by persons with severe mental illness, three specific areas need to be addressed: (1) the similarities in cognitive deficits of severe mental illness in relation to the deficits stereotyped in African Americans and women; (2) the lack of awareness persons may have towards their mental illness; and (3) the similarities in the experience of mental illness stigma compared to stigma faced by ethnic minorities and women.

Research questions to be addressed in this project include: 1) does stereotype threat apply to groups that are typically assumed to have biologically-based cognitive deficits (such as persons with severe mental illness); 2) what are the differential effects of stereotype threat on cognitive deficits that represent fundamental disease vulnerabilities versus those that seem to vary with symptom acuity; 3) does the relative visibility of stereotype markers affect the impact of stereotype threat on cognitive performance; and 4) does self stigma negatively impact the cognitive functioning of persons with severe mental illness. The research questions are being addressed through a randomized design using consumer volunteers participating in the Partial Hospitalization Program (PHP) at the University of Chicago Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation

¹The term consumer refers to recipients of mental health services.

Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectations, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and motivation (pp. 75-146). New York: Freeman.

Fiske, S. T., Neuberg, S. L., Beattie, A. E., & Milberg, S. J. (1987). Category-based and attribute-based reactions to others: Some informational conditions of stereotyping and individuating processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 399-427.

Hernstein, R. A., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. New York: Grove Press. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.